The Portuguese Colonial War was a thirteen-year-long war which was fought between the Portuguese colonial empire and nationalist movements in the Portuguese colonies of Angola, Guinea-Bissau, and Mozambique from 1961 to 1974. By the 1960s, Portugal was, along with Spain, the only fascist dictatorship to have survived World War II, and its Estado Novo regime, unlike the other European colonial empires in Africa (with the exception of France in the singular case of the Algerian War and Britain in the singular case of the Mau Mau Uprising in Kenya), refused to accept the decolonization of Africa and resisted the rising tide of anti-imperialist African nationalism. The first of the colonial wars, the Angolan War of Independence, broke out in 1961, with the Marxist-Leninist MPLA, the Maoist UNITA, the conservative FNLA, and the separatist FLEC rebel groups rising up against the colonial administration after an uprising of cotton plantation workers was ruthlessly crushed. The armed struggle against Portuguese colonial rule, backed by the Eastern Bloc as well as by the United States (which backed Julio Botelho Moniz's failed 1961 coup attempt against the Estado Novo regime), spread to Guinea-Bissau in the form of the PAIGC and to Mozambique in the form of FRELIMO. These conflicts were intertwined as the African nationalist regimes of the decolonization era backed the resistance movements in a pan-Africanist struggle, and the United Nations supported the independence movements in the form of arms embargos and other punitive sanctions. By 1973, the war's length and financial costs had made the overseas war unpopular at home in Portugal, leading to the April 1974 Carnation Revolution in Portugal. The anti-fascist military coup led to Portugal's withdrawal from its African colonies, and hundreds of thousands of Portuguese citizens and military personnel (including Europeans, Africans, and Luso-Africans) fled from the colonies and settled in metropolitan Portugal as destitute refugees. The Portuguese Colonial War left 16,278 Portuguese troops killed in action and 15,507 wounded, while 10,000 rebels were killed in Angola, 6,000 in Guinea-Bissau, and 10,000 in Mozambique, and a total of 110,000 civilians were killed (50,000 each in Mozambique and Angola and 5,000 in Guinea, plus 5,000 white settlers murdered). While Guinea-Bissau remained at peace following the Portuguese withdrawal, Angola and Mozambique became battlegrounds in the United States and the Soviet Union's Cold War-era proxy wars, the Angolan Civil War and the Mozambican Civil War, which claimed millions of lives and devastated both countries.