The Philadelphia campaign was a campaign of the American Revolutionary War which occurred from July 1777 to July 1778 in conjunction with the Saratoga campaign in New York. British general William Howe sailed from New York City to launch an amphibious invasion of the United States capital of Philadelphia, defeating the Americans at the Battle of Brandywine and the Battle of Germantown and capturing Philadelphia. However, Howe resigned during the occupation of Philadelphia and was replaced by Henry Clinton, who was ordered to evacuate Philadelphia in 1778 as the British refocused their efforts on reconquering the American South with the help of American loyalists. The British retreated to New York via New Jersey, fighting a rearguard action at the Battle of Monmouth in June 1778 before embarking on their ships at Sandy Hook and sailing across the Raritan Bay to Manhattan.
Background[]
General George Washington fought back from defeats in the battles around New York City in 1776, with victories in New Jersey at the end of the year. Many New Jersey citizens supported the Loyalist side in 1776, but Washington's victories at Trenton and Princeton at the turn of the year gave Patriot forces the upper hand in the state. British garrisons were pulled out and Patriot militia sought out and punished Loyalists.
During the spring and summer of 1777, the British commander-in-chief General William Howe attempted to bring Washington into open battle in New Jersey. Unsuccessful, Howe withdrew, setting his sights instead upon Philadelphia - which Washington would be forced to defend with his main army. Howe's commitment to this new strategy meant that he was not able to support John Burgoyne's plan to form a "junction" on the Hudson River with other British regiments.
History[]
It was July - perilously late in the campaigning season - before British commander-in-chief General Howe decided on teh best route to take to the Patriot capital. After changing his mind several times, he made plans to sail up Chesapeake Bay and land on the west side of the Elk River not far from Head of Elk (now Elkton) in Maryland. His intelligence service told him that this was a safer route because the Delaware River was extensively fortified.
The sea voyage lasted 32 days - four times longer than anticipated. But in the wake of Howe's landing in August, Washington finally determinde Howe's objective. The Patriot commander-in-chief took only 36 hours to get his Continentals moving south. He had around 14,000 men with him, 2,000 fewer than his adversary, but militia reinforcements later raised the Patriot total to some 18,000 men.
Plans of attack[]
After his landing in Maryland, Howe took three weeks to ready his army for battle and Washington put this time to good use. Abandoning the cautious tactics that he had previously favored, Washington marched to confront Howe at Brandywine Creek, which the British needed to cross to approach Philadelphia. He concentrated the best of his troops and most of his artillery centrally at Chadd's Ford and along the wooded slopes above it. Three brigades of militia were deployed on his left and three divisions were stationed at Buffington's Ford to guard his right. Skirmishing riflemen were ordered to take up position west of the creek to harass Howe's men as they advanced.
Had Howe then launched a full-scale frontal assault, Washington might well have won the victory he sought, but the British commander did not oblige. Instead, Howe split his forces. While General Wilhelm von Knyphausen readied an assault against the Patriot center, Howe ordered Lord Charles Cornwallis to march the remaining 8,000 men the 18 miles to Jeffries Ford, to turn Washington's right flank and fall on the Continentals from the rear.
Battle of Brandywine[]
The battle began at 10 AM on a foggy 11 September. Knyphausen took nearly five hours to drive the Patriot skirmishers over the Brandywine, suffering heavy casualties in the process. He then paused, waiting for news of Cornwallis' flanking movement while his artillery dueled with the Patriot guns. Washington chose to reinforce the center of his line in preparation for a counterattack. At 4 PM, however, the battle on the Patriot right began in earnest. After 90 minutes of desperate fighting, superior British numbers prevailed and the Patriots reeled back in disarray.
It was time for Knyphausen to cross the Brandywine and complete the envelopment of the Patriots. But at Dilworthtown, stubborn Patriot resistance brought the British advance to a halt. Under cover of darkness, Washington managed to retreat to safety. He had lost around 1,100 men; Howe's casualties were half as many.
Taking Philadelphia[]
Howe marched on Philadelphia the following day, shadowed and harassed by a troop led by Patriot General Anthony Wayne. On the night of 20 September, Wayne set up camp near the Paoli Tavern, where they were taken by surprise by 2,000 of Howe's men. A total of 272 Patriots were killed, wounded, or missing after the attack. Only four British soldiers were killed and 11 wounded. Phialdelphia now lay open. The Continental Congress fled to Lancaster some 50 miles to the west, decamping, as one Loyalist put it, "with the utmost precipitation and in the greatest confusion." On 26 September, Howe's troops entered the Patriot capital. It was a major success for Howe, but not the complete triumph for which he had hoped: Washington was still in the field. Reinforced by militia from New Jersey, Maryland, and Virginia as well as Continentals from the Hudson Highlands, he planned to strike another blow against Howe at Germantown, some 5 miles north of Philadelphia.
The attack began at 5 AM on 4 October. At first, the Patriots met with success, but in the fog several units got lost and two of Washington's brigades opened fire on each other by mistake. The Patriot commander also wasted valuable time trying to storm the Chew House, home of the city's chief justice, which the British had turned into a makeshift fortification. After three hours, the fighting ceased. As British reinforcements arrived, Washington beat a retreat. The campaign was over. While the British concentrated on capturing the Patriot forts on the Delaware - to open up the river as a route for seaborne supplies - Washington pulled his army back to Valley Forge for the winter.
Attaching blame[]
Howe had taken Philadelphia, but the Continental Army remained a significant threat, particularly with the French poised to join the Patriot cause. Some Patriots, however, turned on Washington as a result of the loss of Philadelphia. Jonathan D. Sergeant, Attorney General of Pennsylvania, said: "Thousands of lives and millions of property are yearly sacrificed to the insufficiency of our commander-in-chief. Two battles he has lost for us by two such blunders as might have disgraced a soldier of three months standing. Washington fought on regardless, and the tide soon turned in his favor.
The March from Philadelphia[]
The British had enjoyed an easy winter in Philadelphia. Ample food, comfortable shelter, and the pleasant company of the city's fairest marked a stark contrast with the conditions suffered by Washington's Continentals merely 40 miles away at Valley Forge. Although a third of the captured city's population had fled, 20,000 inhabitants remained and cooperated with the occupying force. Rounds of parties for the king's dashing officers, as well as concerts, entertainments, and parades for the rank and file, were the order of the day. It was perhaps little wonder that at least 1,100 Continentals deserted to join their more comfortable opponents. However, Loyalists in the city were outraged that General William Howe was neglecting offensive operations against the adversary at Valley Forge.
British retreat[]
Howe had, in fact, tendered his resignation in October 1777. He was relieved by General Henry Clinton, who arrived in Philadelphia in May 1778 carrying new instructions: British forces were to evacuate Philadelphia and turn their attention to the South. King George III himself had realized the new strategic situation. With a war against France coming, he had told Lord Frederick North in March, "It is a joke to think of keeping Pennsylvania." Word of the imminent evacuation filled Philadelphia's Loyalists with terror. Both honor and policy required Clinton to aid them, so he promised passage to New York by sea. Three thousand people lined up to depart for exile in June.
With his fleet overloaded with Loyalist refugees, Clinton was forced to push his army overland across New Jersey to the safety of New York City. Washington's spies noted their preparations and reported the British march on 18 June. Progress proved painfully slow. With 10,000 soldiers, plus artillery pieces and 1,500 wagons, Clinton's army stretched 12 miles. It took almost a week to cover the first 35 miles of the 100-mile route from Philadelphia to the relative safety of the New Jersey coast, especially with Patriot militias hindering the march by downing trees and destroying bridges along the way.
Plan of action[]
Washington was eager to attack Clinton's column. He knew their numbers were well matched - his regiments fielded 13,000 soldiers - and Patriot skills and spirits had recovered at Valley Forge. He dispatched a small force to reoccupy Philadelphia and marched his army into New Jersey. A council of his generals warned against a full-scale attack, but General John Cadwalader of Pennsylvania thought they had "as good an opportunity as we shall probably have during this Contest to strike a decisive Blow." General Anthony Wayne agreed: even if an attack ended in defeat, the public would note the British withdrawal and believe Washington's men had done their part at "Burgoyning Clinton."
Unconvinced the Patriots could stand against British regulars, General Charles Lee - recently returned to the army via a prisoner exchange - strongly advised against attack. Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben, the driller of troops at Valley Forge, offered the wisest advice: launch an attack on Clinton's vulnerable baggage train. The Continentals now moved quickly, drawing near the British column in central New Jersey in the last week of June.
Washington's initial plan detached 1,500 soldiers for a probing attack; Lee declined the command as unworthy of a major general. As command passed to the Marquis de Lafayette, Washington revised his design, increasing the force to more than 5,000 men. Lee now "viewed it in a very different light" and assumed command of the attack. Washington hoped this enhanced force would destroy Clinton's rearguard, an elite, but outnumbered force of 2,000 men.
Rearguard action[]
On the morning of 28 June, Lee advanced his three divisions - led by Lafayette, Wayne, and William Maxwell - toward the British rearguard which was departing Monmouth Courthouse after a 40-hour rest stop there. The Patriots had no sense of the terrain before them, however, and Lee became greatly worried when they came to three deep ravines that would slow reinforcements or complicate a retreat. He pressed on, though, confident in his numerical superiority. As Lee's divisions began to skirmish with the rear guard commanded by Cornwallis, Clinton threw 4,000 more soldiers into the fight. Despite realizing his numerical superiority was melting away, Lee continued the attack, which began to fall into disorder. Although the Continental soldiers fought well, their officers showed far less polish. Lee's orders were ignored or changed by the commanders of the three divisions, each acting for himself. Lafayette began to withdraw, creating a cascade. Lee had not ordered a retreat, but his army was wavering and he began to pull the men back, hoping to forestall a disorderly panic. He aimed to take up a strong position on the far side of the westernmost ravine.
Washington, at headquarters 7 miles from the fighting, was in the dark. Lee had failed to update him on the situation. Instead the commander-in-chief learned of the withdrawal from a boy walking away from the fighting. The shocking news left him "exceedingly surprised and rather exasperated." Washington's rage grew as he heard (untrue) rumors that Lee's men had fired only a single volley. Reaching Lee's position, Washington raged at the general, calling him "a damned poltroon" and demanding an explanation of the "unaccountable retreat." Before Lee could reply Washington relieved him of command. Assuming control, Washington rallied the Continentals into the defensive position Lee had begun at the western ravine, pulling up reinforcements. During the rest of the afternoon, Clinton launched three assaults despite the intolerably hot conditions, while Patriot and British artillery dueled for hours. As darkness fell, Clinton withdrew his men "fainting with fatigue, heat, and want of water."
Washington and his men slept on the battlefield, determined to renew the attack in the morning, only to find Clinton's force had slipped away in the night. His political and strategic purpose fulfilled, Washington let them go, relieved to count only 360 Patriot dead against 500 British soldiers. He knew, though, that he had lost an opportunity and blamed Lee, who was court-martialed and dismissed from the army. Clinton's army was shipped across from New Jersey to New York at the start of July.
Aftermath[]
Monmouth proved the war's last major engagement in the northern states. The British - and the conflict - became focused on the South.
Both sides insisted they had met their goals at Monmouth, the longest day of fighting and the largest exchange of artillery since the war began. Washington had attacked the British and for the first time had held the battlefield; Clinton had successfully delivered his army to New York. The stalemate that had begun the year would continue.
Unable to protect its European and Caribbean interests from the French, Britain concentrated on Georgia and the Carolinas. In so doing, Britain hoped to weaken rebellious Virginia and protect its most valuable assets.