The Norman conquest of Sicily occurred from 1061 to 1091 when the Norman lords of Apulia and Calabria conquered the island of Sicily from the Muslim Emirate of Sicily. The result of the Norman conquest of Sicily was the complete Latinization of the island through the gradual assimilation of the Sicilian Arabs and the replacement of the Greek Christian clergy with Latin Christian ones. For the next 100 years, the borders of Norman Sicily were essentially untouched.
Background[]
In the aftermath of the Battle of Civitate in 1053, the Normans stabilized their rule over northern Apulia; by 1060, they had also conquered Calabria and seized a sizable chunk of Campania. The Papacy was forced to abandon their plan to expel them from Italy and instead recognized them as the "Duchy of Apulia and Calabria". Ruling this duchy was Robert Guiscard, and he and his brother Roger d'Hauteville established themselves as two of the greatest conquerors of the Middle Ages, as they were always on the lookout for more land and plunder. Soon, they set their sights across the Strait of Messina to the south.
By the mid-11th century, the isle of Sicily had been under Muslim rule for 150 years; the Tunisian Aghlabids had ousted the Byzantines in 830 AD before later being subsumed by the Fatimid juggernaut. In 948, the independent Kalbid Emirate was established on the island. Sicily flourished under Islamic purview, with its sunny and warm climate and its rich and fertile fields making it the wealthiest island in the Mediterranean. Its capital of Palermo also came to have 350,000 residents. However, Emir Hasan al-Samsam's assassination in 1052 led to the island fracturing into three feuding taifas (principalities). The sizable population of native Greek Christians sought greater autonomy and a co-religionist protector from across the sea, and the Pope decided to make Guiscard "Duke of Sicily" and convinced him to invade Sicily.
Conquest[]
First invasion[]
When the Syracusan Arab ruler Ibn at-Timnah was forced to flee from the island amid a blood feud with the Agrigentine Arab ruler Ibn al-Hawas in 1061, he approached Roger d'Hauteville in Calabria and enlisted his aid, having been crushed in battle. Roger, the younger and more hot-blooded of the Hauteville brothers, jumped at this opportunity. In the winter of 1061, 150 mounted Norman knights and a handful of auxiliaries crossed the Strait and landed north of Messina, plundering the rich and undefended countryside before crushing a Muslim amry which had been sent against them. They failed to take Messina and fled to their ships, only to find that their ships had been scattered by a Muslim fleet. For three days, they withstood raids from Messina before evacuating on their ships on the fourth day.
Second invasion[]
Norman knights at Enna
The Normans, now aware of the island's riches, prepared a second invasion. In the spring of 1062, the Normans levied another army of 2,000 infantry and 450 mounted knights, led by both Hauteville brothers. Robert mustered the lion's share of his men and ships at the rock of Scylla to divert the Muslim fleet's attention, while Roger sneakily made the crossing five miles south with 500 men. They struck Messina from the south and captured the entirely unprotected city, and the Muslims fled rather than be caught in a pincer attack. The Greek Christians greeted the Normans as liberators and offered them a thanksgiving service, and Ibn at-Timnah soon attached his army to the Normans; together, they marched deeper into the heart of the island. Much of eastern Sicily was loyal to Ibn at-Timnah and did not resist him or the Normans, and Paterno fell quickly. The mountain fortress of Enna, Ibn al-Hawas' principal stronghold, held out as the Normans harassed the countryside. The Normans then lured Ibn al-Hawas' army into an open battle, and his men were crushed by the Norman knights. Despite this great victory, Robert knew he was overextended, so he left the fortress untaken and consolidated his gains, while he let his men return to their families in Apulia with loot in hand. Meanwhile, Roger entered into the Greek Christian town of Troina, which welcomed him as a liberator. He wintered at Troina, but he returned home to marry his betrothed Judith d'Evreux at Mileto. Roger was incensed with his older brother's tendency to take most of the loot during his campaigns, and he demanded titles and privileges from his brother before threatening to take them by force. Robert responded by laying siege to him at Mileto, and Roger slipped out of the city in disguise and fled to Gerace. The townsfolk captured Robert when he came to pursue Roger, but Roger realized that, without Robert, his political ambitions would be crippled. The two siblings embraced as a gesture of peace, preventing a civil war and leading to Roger being given his fair share of the loot.
Third invasion[]
Zirid troops arriving in Sicily
Meanwhile, Ibn at-Timnah had been ambushed and slain by Ibn al-Hawas in northern Sicily. In the summer of 1062, as Robert put down Byzantine-supported rebellions in Apulia, Roger returned to Sicily, finding a cold reception in Troina. The Greeks there realized that the Normans were harsh overlords and brutal thieves, and they attempted to kidnap Judith as Roger campaigned further into Sicily. The small Norman garrison rallied to the defense of their lady, and Roger and his army returned to the city to join the garrison. However, he found that thousands of Muslims from the countryside had taken up arms to aid the Christian Greeks. Overwhelmed, Roger led a retreat into Troina's citadel and prepared for a siege, holding out for four months. Once again, the Normans' salvation came through sheer luck. The Saracen soldiers on the perimeter had taken to drinking red wine to warm themselves during the winter; normally forbidden from drinking alcohol due to their religion, they became intoxicated. Roger took advantage of the drunkenness, and, in January, he led a foray onto the open streets and subdued the inebriated Muslims at their outposts. They then engaged the Greek and Saracen besiegers and retook the city.
Battle of Cerami[]
The Battle of Cerami
By now, the Muslim rulers of Sicily realized that the Normans were a real threat, and the Saracen princes set aside their differences and put up a united front. They then received reinforcements of North African Berbers from the Zirid dynasty of Algeria, led by the Emir's princely sons. Roger returned to Calabria to retrieve more horses for his knights (as his men had eaten most of their horses during the siege); meanwhile, Judith held Troina as bands of Normans pillaged the countryside for supplies. By the time of Roger's return, a Muslim army had gathered at Palermo and was marching on his position. Roger had 130 knights and 500 infantrymen at his disposal, while the Saracens had up to 50,000 troops. Roger sent his cousin Serlo II of Hauteville with 30 knights to secure Cerami to the west of Troina, and, in June of 1063, the two armies met at the Battle of Cerami. The Normans again defied the odds and slew 20,000 Muslims, and their victory established the permanence of the Normans in Sicily.
Conquest of Sicily[]
Rioting in Palermo
In 1064, Norman brothers mustered their levies and laid siege to Palermo, knowing that control over the prosperous capital city would guarantee dominion over the entire island. Their siege camp was infested by venomous tarantula during the siege, forcing the Normans to abandon the campaign. The following years saw perpetual rebellions against Robert in Apulia, and Roger was forced on the defensive as his brother put down Greek uprisings. In 1068, Roger defeated the Muslims outside of Misilmeri, causing the Kalbids of Palermo to turn on the Zirids, blaming their defeats on North African interference. As riots broke out in Palermo, Ibn al-Hawas was killed and the Zirid princes decided to pack up and return to North Africa. Muslim Sicily was now leaderless and deprived of the bulk of its army, and, in 1071, Robert Guiscard ended his campaign in Apulia by conquering Bari and finally ending the Byzantine presence in Bari. The Franco-Norsemen then focused on the conquest of Palermo, which fell in 1072. The Islamic rump state in Sicily was given a reprieve as the Hautevilles focused on conquering Naples, Amalfi, Salerno, and Abruzzo, but, by now, the Sicilian Arabs' fate was inevitable. In 1085, Roger conquered Syracuse, the last great Muslim city in Sicily. In 1091, Noto, the final Islamic outpost, fell to the relentless Hauteville, ending two centuries of Muslim rule on the island. Its people remained diverse, with the Normans and their Orthodox Greek and Muslim subjects forming the most dynamic kingdom in the history of medieval Europe.