The Meuse-Argonne Offensive (26 September-11 November 1918) was a major battle of World War I that occurred when 1.2 million soldiers of the American Expeditionary Forces and other Allied countries launched a massive offensive against the Imperial German Army's 5th Army in the Argonne Forest of northern France. The offensive was the largest battle in American history, and the Americans managed to push German forces back towards Metz after clearing the Argonne Forest (with heavy losses), crossing the Aisne River, and taking Sedan. The Americans and Germans were fighting for the hills near Sedan when the Triple Entente and the German Empire signed an armistice on 11 November 1918, bringing an end to the horrific carnage. The offensive was the AEF's bloodiest battle during the war, as 26,277 American soldiers were killed in the battle. The offensive was one of the deciding factors in Germany's decision to sign an armistice with the Allies, as the Americans threatened to recapture all of Alsace and Lorraine due to the success of their assault.
Background[]
In August 1918, the Allied armies begna a relentless series of attacks. The onslaught, known as the Hundred Days Offensive, consisted of a series of battles along the Western Front. Following the victory of British and Commonwealth forces at the Battle of Amiens, the Germans knew they could no longer take the offensive. Instead, they sought to delay the Allied offensive with a stubborn defense. Throughout the summer of 1918, ever-increasing numbers of US troops in France tipped the balance of forces against Germany. Formally created in August, the US First Army entered combat at the St. Mihiel salient on 12 September. After swiftly capturing the salient, the army moved northward in preparation for the Meuse-Argonne Offensive.
Offensive[]
The Meuse-Argonne Offensive was a daunting task for which General John J. Pershing's First Army was inadequately prepared. The Americans were to advance up the west bank of the Meuse River, supported by the French 4th Army on their left. The forested, hilly terrain was described by US general Hunter Liggett as a "natural fortress". The Germans had improved on nature, creating a formidable defensive network in depth. This was manned by the battle-hardened soldiers of the German 5th Army under General Max von Gallwitz.
Short on resources[]
Although 600,000 US soldiers were available for the offensive, most of them had not previously experienced combat and many were poorly trained. The Americans were strong on infanty numbers but remained heavily dependent on the British and French for tanks, artillery, and aircraft. Since the Meuse-Argonne attack was timed to coincide with British and French offensives elsewhere on the front, the Allies had withdrawn equipment and personnel to meet their own needs, leaving Pershing with far fewer tanks and aircraft than he'd had fro the smaller Battle of St. Mihiel two weeks earlier.
Launched on 26 September, the Meuse-Argonne Offensive soon ran into trouble. German forward positions were overrun by weight of numbers but US losses were heavy. Inexperienced American officers flung men forward in frontal attacks only for them to be mown down by machine gun fire. Pershing was concerned about the poor coordination between artillery and infantry, with some units forced to carry out assaults without any artillery support.
By contrast, German artillery fire, both with explosive and gas shells, was terrifyingly effective, the gunners benefiting from intelligence provided by German observation aircraft, which dominated the sky. US logistical problems meant that, as advances were made, food and ammunition supplies often failed to reach troops engaged in combat on the front. Even the weather was hostile, with persistent rain adversely affecting the US soldiers' morale.
By 28 September, the offensive had bogged down and the Germans were mounting counterattacks. One of these severely mauled the US 35th Infantry Division (National Guardsmen from Missouri and Kansas) and forced its withdrawal from battle. Then, poorly-trained African-American troops of the US 92nd Infantry Division, under the command of indifferent white officers, broke and fled under German fire at Binarville in the Argonne forest. This episode later became a point of reference for those who wanted to denigrate the fighting spirit of African-Americans, which was, in fact, amply demonstrated elsewhere in the war.
Pershing regroups[]
After the battle, Allied Supreme Commander Marshal Ferdinand Foch believed US generals had proved incapable of handling a large-scale offensive and made a move to bring American troops under French command. Pershing, however, clung to his independence. After a pause for reorganization, on 4 October he relaunched the offensive with more experienced troops in the lead.
US troops mostly fought with oustanding courage and enthusiasm, but again the gains were hard-won and losses severe. In one notable episode, six companies of the US 77th Infantry Division, led by Major Charles Whittlesey, were surrounded by German forces, their only method of keeping in touch with teh rest of the army being by carrier pigeon. This "Lost Battalion" held out for six days before it was rescued from encirclement. Only 194 of its original force of 554 men were still fit for action.
Gradually and painfully, progress was made. By 12 October, the Germans had been cleared from the Argonne Forest and US troops were facing the Kriemhilde Stellung, the southernmost part of the Hindenburg Line. Momentum had again been exhausted, and Pershing decided to reorganize his forces. To accommodate increasing numbers of troops - about 1 million by mid-October - he created a new US Second Army under General Robert Bullard. At the same time, he transferred command of the First Army to General Liggett, assigning himself a supervisory role.
Liggett was an excellent fighting general. While the desperate attritional struggle continued through the second half of October, he strove to imbue his army with the tactical sophistication it had lacked under Pershing. Infantry were to advance in small units, some firing to cover the movement of others; artillery was to coordinate closely with infantry, providing a creeping barrage behind which they could advance. Tanks and aircrafts were to support the infantry.
Hard-won victory[]
On 1 November, it all came together when an assault by the US V Corps broke the Kriemhilde Stellung. Exploiting their training and experience, the US soldiers crossed the Meuse River and advanced along opposite banks, driving back the German forces. By 9 November, the Americans had progressed 25 miles to reach the hills overlooking the city of Sedan. When the Armistice stopped the fighting two days later, Pershing claimed the Meuse-Argonne Offensive as a victory, even if it was achieved at great cost.
Aftermath[]
The Americans suffered 122,000 casualties in the Meuse-Argonne Offensive, including 26,277 dead. German losses were on a similar scale. The relentless pressure kept up by the US and supporting French troops in the Meuse-Argonne sector prevented the Germans from reinforcing the Hindenburg Line farther north. This was taken by the British and French in late September and early October.
Along with the defeat of Germany's allies on other fronts - Turkey in Palestine, Bulgaria in Macedonia, and Austria-Hungary in Italy - these German setbacks on the Western Front led Germany to seek an armistice on 11 November. By that time, the American Expeditionary Force (AEF), like other armies on the Western Front, was in the grip of an influenza epidemic that would kill 25,000 Americans, compared to a total of 53,000 killed in combat.