The Imperial Japanese Army (IJA) was the principal ground force on the Empire of Japan, founded in 1868 during the Meiji Restoration and disbanded in 1945 on the Japanese surrender at the end of World War II.
History[]
The Imperial Army was created by Emperor Meiji amid the Boshin War, fought against the French-trained forces of the Tokugawa Shogunate. After the defeat of the Shogunate, Omura Masujiro proposed the creation of a strong standing army at the expense of the domains, leading to his assassination in 1869. However, Yamagata Aritomo oversaw the formation of a modern military into which former samurai from Imperial fiefs like the Choshu Domain and Satsuma Domain held prominent ranks, and conscription was enacted on 10 January 1873. The Japanese military was trained by the French and Germans during the 1870s and 1880s, and it first displayed its might during the Taiwan Expedition of 1874. The Japanese military would go on to crush samurai rebellions at home before destroying the Qing Chinese army in the First Sino-Japanese War with only 1,132 killed. The Japanese military proved itself equal to the Western powers by helping them crush China's Boxer Rebellion and by defeating Russia in the Russo-Japanese War.
After the death of Emperor Meiji in 1912, the declining power of the emperors led to the military filling the power vacuum. The military invaded Manchuria in 1931 without authorization from the government and also instigated the Second Sino-Japanese War, enabling Japan to conquer vast swathes of China. Ultimately, the IJA pulled off a string of stunning victories against the Western powers from 1941 to 1942 amid World War II, but - divided between wars on continental Asia (in China and Burma) and in the Pacific (in the Philippines, New Guinea, and smaller islands) - the 6 million-strong army came to suffer from supply shortages after 1943. The Japanese military became infamous for its war crimes, including the Rape of Nanking, as well as for its ferocity in battle. Japanese generals regularly committed seppuku rather than surrender occupied islands to the Allies, and soldiers often resorted to suicidal banzai charges when they were on the eve of defeat. During World War II, up to 2.19 million Japanese servicemen died in and out of combat, including 1.57 million killed in China, 163,000 in Burma, 200,000 in New Guinea and Indonesia, 7,900 in French Indochina, 46,000 in Manchuria, and over 58,000 elsewhere. 810,000 were missing in action. Under the terms of Japan's surrender, the military was disbanded, although the Japan Self-Defense Forces were created in 1954 for the sole purpose of defense. Radicalized by a commitment to bushido and by nationalistic peer pressure, the last Japanese holdouts in the former warzone did not surrender until 1974; some were reported to be active as late as 2005.
Political involvement[]
From its inception in the Meiji Restoration (1868), the military was rooted in a form of nationalism that emphasized loyalty to the Emperor and the state. While it sought to modernize Japan to resist Western imperialism, this modernization was often framed within a nationalistic context. The military, particularly the Imperial Army, emerged partly in opposition to the feudal samurai class. The Meiji government aimed to create a conscript army that represented the entire nation rather than just the samurai elite. This shift was part of a broader effort to modernize and strengthen Japan. The military embraced modern military practices and technologies, recognizing their necessity for national strength. However, this embrace was not necessarily aligned with liberal democratic principles; instead, it often reflected a desire to consolidate power under a centralized authority loyal to the Emperor.
In the early years of the Meiji period, the military cooperated with liberal elements as part of the broader modernization effort. Some military leaders supported the establishment of a constitution and parliamentary system, seeing these as tools to strengthen the state. As parliamentary democracy began to take shape, tensions arose between the military and liberal politicians. The military viewed democratic debates and political maneuvering as potential threats to national unity and the Emperor’s authority. Throughout the 1880s and into the 1890s, the military increasingly aligned itself with conservative ideologies. The establishment of the Constitution of the Empire of Japan in 1889 solidified the Emperor's power and allowed the military to operate independently of civilian control.
By the late 1890s, especially after Japan's victory in the First Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895), the military solidified its position as a powerful institution within the state. This victory bolstered nationalist sentiment and further distanced the military from liberal democratic ideals. The military began to adopt a more conservative stance, emphasizing loyalty, discipline, and the importance of a strong state. It increasingly viewed itself as the guardian of national interests, often undermining civilian authority and political parties. By the turn of the century, the military had become a dominant force in Japanese politics, leading to a more authoritarian governance structure that prioritized military values over democratic principles.
In the 1930s, the Japanese military played a significant and often dominant role in politics, reflecting a complex interplay of nationalism, militarism, and political factionalism. The military, particularly the Army, became increasingly involved in politics, often bypassing civilian leadership. Key military leaders held significant power, influencing governmental decisions and national policy. The 1930s saw a series of political assassinations and attempted coups by military factions, aiming to eliminate perceived threats from politicians who opposed militaristic policies. The military did not align itself with specific political parties like the Seiyukai or Minseito. Instead, it sought to exert influence over the government, often supporting militaristic leaders irrespective of their political affiliations.
The military in the 1930s was largely conservative but also exhibited aggressively nationalistic tendencies. It promoted the idea of a strong Japan, emphasizing military expansion and imperialism, particularly in Asia. While not a fascist regime in the Europeab sense, elements of fascism, such as authoritarianism, militarism, and extreme nationalism, were prevalent. The military's ideology incorporated ideas of Japanese superiority and the need for a robust military presence in Asia.
The Japanese Army was internally divided into several factions, two of the most prominent being Kodoha and Toseiha. The Kodoha faction was characterized by its focus on traditional values, the Emperor's role, and a more aggressive expansionist policy. It emphasized spiritual and ideological purity and often drew on Shinto principles. Key figures included General Kijuro Shidehara and other militarists who advocated for a more direct approach to imperial expansion. The Kodoha sought to establish a military government and was involved in several coup attempts, including the February 26 Incident in 1936, which aimed to purge the government of those seen as corrupt or insufficiently nationalistic. The Toseiha faction was more pragmatic and focused on achieving military objectives through a controlled and systematic approach. It favored strengthening the military's role within the existing political system rather than overthrowing it. Leaders such as General Hideki Tojo were associated with this faction, which gained influence after the Kodoha's failed coup. The Toseiha ultimately became more dominant in military politics, especially as Japan moved closer to war. It supported the idea of Japan as a leading power in Asia and advocated for expansion through military means, but within a framework that allowed for some cooperation with civilian leadership.
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