The Conquest of the Americas (1521-1720) was an era of the Renaissance in the Americas that saw colonial powers (predominantly Spain) settle down in the New World and aggressively expand their colonies. Explorers mapped the new lands and Spanish conquistadores ("conquerors", soldiers who sought fortune) searched for cities of gold. The native populations were crushed by guns, germs, and steel, and the Spanish conquered all of Central America and the southern United States by 1720.
Background[]
The Reconquista ended in 1492, allowing Spain to unify almost all of the Iberian Peninsula (except for fellow Christian kingdom Portugal). In the mid-1400s, the Portuguese prince Henry the Navigator launched many expeditions that found new lands that were filled with riches, and young explorers were eager to find rumored cities of gold and riches elsewhere. That year, Queen Isabella I of Spain and King Ferdinand II of Aragon funded the voyage of Christopher Columbus, who located three islands: San Salvador (which he thought was Japan), Hispaniola (which he believed to be China), and Cuba, where he located gold. During this trip, he also found inhabitants already on the islands, which he naimed "Tainos". He returned to the Americas with gold as well as Taino slaves, and the King and Queen decided to send more expeditions to the New World.
In 1515, conquistador Diego Velazquez de Cuellar founded the city of La Habana (present-day Havana, named for chief Habaguanex) on Cuba, and it became the capital of "New Spain", the new colony of the Spanish Empire. From there, Diego and his son Pedro Velazquez and conquistador Hernan Cortes planned to expand their empire, and in 1519, Cortes was sent on a voyage that would change human history.
Conquests[]
Landing in Mexico[]
In 1519, Hernan Cortes landed with an expeditionary force on the coastline of a new continent to be explored. He named a base camp on the shoreline as "Vera Cruz", meaning "True Cross" in Spanish. From there, he imported priests Pablo Nunez and Domingo Franco and merchants Duran Caluela and Ferrand Suarez, and he began to convert the indigenous people of the shoreline to Catholicism. In addition, he contacted friendly natives and his army's numbers rose to 9,200 troops. Cortes was eager to explore additional lands for New Spain, so he headed inland, where he encountered the city of Tehuacan. The Aztec Empire was strong, but they were afraid of these strangers arriving - a prophecy said that the god Quetzacoatl would come in human form from the eastern shore with a plumed hat (Cortes wore a helmet with a plume on it) and wreak havoc on the humans, after their warrior priests could not sacrifice any more men to appease the gods. Cortes and his army besieged Huitzilihuitl and 5,100 Aztec warriors in the city and used cannon to breach the walls. The Aztec warriors were defeated, and Motelchiuh of Yautepec's 11,210 Aztec troops reinforcing the garrison were also forced back. 11,100 Aztecs were slain and Tehuacan was converted into a Spanish city; Cortes' first conquest. Shortly after, Spanish explorer Alfonso Hortiz negotiated with the emissary Teuch of the Tlaxcalans and agreed on an alliance between Spain and the Tlaxcaltecas.
Conquest of the Aztec Empire 1522-[]
The people of Tehuacan despised Cortes, who was aware of talk that a revolt would soon break out. He left the city with his few native Spanish troops, but by the time he reached the Tlaxcalan city of Cholollan, he had an army of 9,630 Spanish and Indian troops. Motelchiuh of Yautepec's Aztec army still remained intact and threatened Cortes' rear flank should he advance, and (less, to him) importantly, they threatened his Tlaxcalan allies. His army engaged the remaining 4,000 Aztecs in 1523 in the Battle of Cholollan, which resulted in a Spanish and Indian victory. The Aztecs were massacred by cannons, steel swords, and pikes, and Motelchiuh fled to the nearby city of Huaxtepec, away from the Spanish army's reaches.
In 1524, Cortes left Cholollan with 9,180 Spanish and Indian troops and pursued Motelchiuh of Yautepec's 5,450 Aztec troops to the city of Huaxtepec. Utilizing his heavy cannon, Cortes stormed the city and slew Motelchiuh and 4,100 Aztec warriors, and he converted Huaxtepec into a city of New Spain. Two years later, he made his way to the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan with 9,220 Spanish and Indian troops and conquered the city and massacred 9,249 Aztec civilians in the city. Tenochtitlan was converted into the city of "Mexico", named for the Mexica people. Mexico became the new capital of New Spain, giving Cortes effective control over New Spain - Diego Velazquez remained isolated on Cuba in the city of Havana, far from the center of the empire. However, Havana remained the bastion of Christianity in the Caribbean and a major recruitment base for the Spanish army.
Cuauhtemoc
In 1527, Cortes was promoted to Lord, and King Charles sent him 5,000 florins to assist in the Spanish war effort. He proceeded to attack the city of Tollan in 1528, slaying Prince Cuauhtemoc and conquering the city. Cuauhtemoc's reinforcing general Montezuma of Cuexcomate was forced to flee, but he was hunted down while fleeing towards the city of Cuautemoc on the northern shoreline of Mexico shortly after.
That same year, Captain Berenguel led an army of 5,900 Spanish troops south from their base of Vera Cruz to attack the city of Taniquiecache in central Mexico. After a year-long siege, the Spanish were able to capture Vera Cruz and defeat the army of Xiconocatzin, and the city was renamed to "Monte Alban". Emperor Cuitlahuac was pursued to the city of Tixtla, which fell to the Spanish in 1530 after a siege that lasted one whole year.
Emperor Maxixcatzin I
Also in 1530, Cortes advanced to the coastal town of Tochpan to the north on the shoreline of Mexico and captured the city from Chimalpopoca. To the south, a 1531 attempt to capture the city of Mictlan ended when Spanish captain Simon Johanes became a traitor to Spain and became a brigand leader. Soon, Captain Lope was sent to capture the city with 3,310 troops, and the Aztecs were defeated after a year-long siege that ranged from 1533 to 1534. In 1534, Captain Val and 3,900 Spanish troops were sent to capture the final Aztec bastion of Tecuantepec, defended by Maxixcatzin I and an army of 7,570 Aztec troops. The Aztecs were wiped out in a final stand, and the Spanish gained all of the wealth that the Aztecs possessed.
Shortly after, conquistadores Pero Guteres and Areas Eyanes were sent with armies to the northern border with the Chichimecs to prevent the northern tribes from attacking southwards.
Conquest of Tabasco 1527-1531[]
With the war escalating in Mexico, Diego Velazquez sent his son Pedro Velazquez with an army of 3,880 troops from Havana to Mexico. He landed in the present-day Tabasco region of the coastline of Mexico, and the Spanish troops marched inland to the city of Coatzalcoalcos. The city was defended by natives hostile to the Spanish, so Velazquez recruited exactly 6,000 more natives into his army. Velazquez's army attacked the natives in the city in a siege from 1527 to 1528 and conquered Coatzalcoalcos, killing 5,180 natives. From 1529 to 1530, Velazquez besieged the city of Potonchan, defeating the Chontal Maya and capturing the city, inching closer to the Yucatan Peninsula to the east. He then captured Xicallanco from the Indian chief Vucub in 1531, converting the city into a Spanish city. During this time, he also spotted some nearby Mayan armies en route to capture the city of Yaxchilan from rebels, giving him a new idea of his next target. After all, there were rumors that the Mayans lived in the Seven Cities of Gold.
Conquest of the Yucatan 1533-1546[]
Emperor Bolontiku
Pedro Velazquez mustered up 9,200 Spanish and Indian troops from across his lands and moved east to find the cities of gold that the Mayans were rumored to possess. His army moved towards the city of Yaxchilan, held by Yaluk and an army of 10,270 troops. The Spanish killed 5,500 Mayans before capturing the city in 1534, and he converted the average city of Yaxchilan into a center of trade routes and gold mining.
Velazquez proceeded on to the city of Tikal with his 9,100 troops, but he was ambushed by 7,560 Mayan troops under Cozaana. He defeated the Mayan army waiting for him and by 1535 he captured the city, but in 1536 he found out about a threat against his northern cities. The Battle of Reforma resulted in the defeat of the Mayans, and the Spanish defended their city of Xicallanco.
In 1539, Velazquez and 8,400 Spanish and Indian troops marched north into the Yucatan Peninsula to attack the Mayan city of Canpech, defended by 4,690 warriors under Chuen and reinforced by 12,060 Mayans under Votan. The city fell after a failed sortie, and Chuen was slain. The city was renamed "Campeche" by the Spanish, and became a major port. The Mayans attempted to recapture the city of Tikal soon after, but their assault was repelled by superior firepower.
Montejo's ships arrive in Mexico in 1542
In 1541, Francisco de Montejo led an expedition from Spain with an army of Spanish troops and he set out to conquer the savage Mayans and relieve them of some of their treasures. When he landed on the shore, he recruited Indian troops, gaining 5,860 troops to attack the Mayan capital of Chichen Itza. The city was held by Manik and 3,700 Mayan troops, and the Spanish took the city in 1542 with cannon. He slew Manik and massacred 13,554 civilians, seizing the gold for himself.
In 1541-1542, Velazquez and 3,700 Spanish and Indians besieged the city of Uxmal, held by 6,450 Mayans. The Spanish conquered the city with 610 losses, taking over Uxmal and converting the city into a Spanish settlement. Velazquez became known as "Pedro the Saint" for his benevolence, and he built a port city. The last city of Chetumal fell to Francisco de Montejo in 1546, ending the great Mayan civilization. Spain had taken in hoardes of gold, but never found the Seven Cities of Gold that they sought.
Conquest of Guerrero 1535-36[]
The Spanish consulate ordered the Spanish to capture the city of Tototepec, a city of unruly natives. Captain Pablo and 2,310 Spanish troops laid siege to the city of Tototepec, held by Tlacyelel and 5,930 native warriors, and the Spanish built siege ladders. The Spanish took over Tototepec with 120 losses, slaying 3,430 native warriors and conquering the coastal province of Guerrero.
Conquest of Jalisco 1536-37[]
The conquistador Pero Guteres and 12,800 Indian warriors loyal to Spain left Mexico City and laid siege to the city of Ocotlan in Jalisco, facing Panitzin and 6,160 Nahua warriors in Ocotlan. With 1,090 losses, the Spanish slew 4,350 natives and turned Ocotlan into a Spanish city.
Conquest of Tamaulipas 1538[]
Hernan Cortes advanced to the north with an army of 9,430 Spanish and Indian troop and laid siege to the city of Cuahtemoc, defended by 3,470 Zacatecos and Guachichils under Xiconocatzin; Cortes was reinforced by Pochotl and 6,700 Tarascan warriors. The city fell adter a year-long siege in 1538, and in 1539 Cortes was promoted to Viscount by King Charles.
Conquest of Honduras and Guatemala 1540-48[]
In 1536, Spanish conquistador Goncalvo Santiago landed in southern Central America with an army of 4,300 Spanish troops, having left Havana three years before. Santiago's expedition met only jungles, but he met a lake, which he named Lago de Nicaragua - it was a portmanteau of chief Nicarao and the Spanish word for water ("agua"). He proceeded on to the east, where he named the gulf "Golfo de Honduras" ("Gulf of the Depths"). There, he found Punta de Caxinas, a fort built by Christopher Columbus built on 14 August 1502 that was since overrun by Indians under Tutul Xiu, in 1540, some thirty-eight years after it was founded. The Spanish overran the village and massacred the populace, converting the village to "Trujillo", a Spanish settlement.
From 1541 to 1542, the Spanish general Cristian de Managua laid siege to the city of Tlacochcalpan in the south. Managua slew Yaxun Balam and his army and took over the city, which was renamed "Tegucigalpa", currently the capital city of Honduras. From 1543 to 1544, Santiago attacked the city of Quirigua with his army, and the Spanish slew the inhabitants. The final city of Xelaju fell in 1548, and the Captaincy-General of Guatemala was formed.
Floride Expedition 1541[]
Governor Jean de Caroline
In 1541, at the same time that Francisco de Montejo's Spanish fleet arrived in Mexico, Governor Jean de Caroline and Councillor Richart de la Floride and a French fleet sailed to the north of Cuba and landed in present-day Florida. They conquered the native camp there and founded Fort Caroline, the new capital of New France.
Conquest of the Chichimec 1544-1553[]
The Chichimec Tribes of Zacatecos and Guachichils were a strong nation with their capital at Colotan, and they encompassed all of northern Mexico. The Chichimeca were threats to New Spain, who had yet to deal with them in diplomacy. In 1544, the Spanish besieged their cities of Zacatecas, Aguapalam Camp, Colotan, and Ahuacatlan simultaneously. All of them fell, to conquistadores Areas Eyanes, Nicollas Estevanes, Pero Guteres, and Captain Roy, respectively. Then, the Spanish made preparations to advance up the coast to Sinaloa, where the final Chichimec city of Culiacan lay. In 1550, Ferran Johanes defeated Chichimec chief Tlaltececatzin of Azcapotzalco, who was later captured and slain by another Spanish general, Val Villelmes. In 1552, the Apache formed an alliance with New Spain and Mingan of the Chiricahua and Val Villelmes both besieged the final city of Culiacan a year later. 12,600 Chichimecs under Tlapaltecatl of Otumba and Camargo of Xochicalco were killed, and Spain took over northern Mexico.
Colonization of the Mississippi 1549[]
The French colonists arrived in Florida previously, but they did not make an attempt at forming a colony there. Instead, the French - under the command of general Arthur Mauclerc - crossed through Florida and into Alabama and Mississippi. There, they encountered the Miccosukee tribes, and they slaughtered all of the warriors defending their camp. Miccosukee Camp was made the new outpost of New France and their homeland.
Conquest of Chiapas 1549-1550[]
Goncalvo Santiago's army of 13,000 Indian troops loyal to Spain proceeded into the province of Chiapas, one of the last provinces in Mexico that was not under Spanish control. From 1549 to 1550, he besieged the city of Tochtlan (Tuxtla Gutierrez) and faced 8,430 Chiapa warriors, and he captured the city after an assault.
Conquest of Florida 1550-1553[]
The expedition of New France to Mississippi in 1549 was a wake-up call to Spain, who fell behind in the race to colonize the unexplored Gulf Coast of the present-day United States. Spain sent an expedition of 5,100 troops under Luis de Tequesta and 5 ships under Admiral Enrique from Guantanamo Bay in southern Cuba on an expedition to the New World. The Spanish landed near present-day Cape Coral, Florida, and they moved inland to the village of Teqeusta. The Vizcaynos, led by chief Mochini of Tequesta, were slaughtered and the population was exterminated to put down dissent against the Spanish conquerors. 2,600 Spanish troops under Raul de Tequesta left the town for the north, and in 1553 they conquered the Escampabas and took over the town of Calusa. Florida was now under full Spanish control, adding a part of mainland America to their empire.