Augustus (23 September 63 BC-19 August 14 AD), born Gaius Octavius and also called Octavian, was the first Emperor of the Roman Empire, reigning from 27 BC to 14 AD. Octavian was named heir in Julius Caesar’s will and posthumously adopted following his assassination in 44 BC. With Marcus Aemilius Lepidus and Mark Antony he formed the Second Triumvirate, defeating Caesar's killers Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius Longinus at the Battle of Philippi in 42 BC and also defeating Sextus Pompeius at the 36 BC Battle of Naulochus. However, relations broke down and Augustus marginalised Lepidus and defeated Antony and Cleopatra, consolidating power under his control.
In 27 BC, Augustus declared himself Princeps, effectively making himself the supreme leader of the new Roman Empire. He reigned for forty years, and on his death he was succeeded by his own adoptive son Tiberius; it was rumoured that his wife Livia Drusilla, considered evil, had poisoned his figs while still on the vine, as, by then, Augustus only ate what he picked himself. During his reign, Europe entered a mostly-peaceful period known as the Pax Romana, and the Roman Empire would become one of the largest empires in history.
Biography[]
Octavian and his adoptive father, Julius Caesar
Known as Octavian in his youth, the Emperor Augustus was the adopted son of Julius Caesar. Only 19 years old when Caesar was killed in 44 BC, Octavian was not expected to prove a major player in the ensuing power struggle.
Octavian was born into an equestrian family. After the early death of his father, he was raised by his mother Atia Balba Caesonia, a niece of Julius Caesar. He was educated in rhetoric and philosophy and showed ambition from a young age. Caesar recognized this and named Octavian as his heir, despite having little military experience.
In 43 BC, he formed the Second Triumvirate (an alliance of three men) with Marcus Aemilius Lepidus and Caesar's right-hand man, Mark Antony. Though initially overshadowed by the more experienced Antony, Octavian positioned himself as Caesar’s rightful successor and sought to avenge his adoptive father’s murder. When the pair faced Caesar's assassins, Brutus and Cassius, at Philippi in 42 BC, his military inexperience was only too evident. He escaped capture when his camp was overrun by Brutus, but put up a determined defence while Antony routed the enemy.
Octavian in 42 BC.
Over the following years, Octavian's ruthlessness and single-minded pursuit of power with his military campaigns largely executed by his trusted general, Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa.
Tensions with Antony escalated as the latter's involvement with Cleopatra grew. Octavian launched a propaganda campaign, accusing Antony of betraying Rome and of planning to establish a Hellenistic monarchy. The Senate declared war on Cleopatra, leading to the decisive confrontation at Actium in 31 BC.
His conduct of the civil war after Antony and Cleopatra's defeat at Actium and the annexation of Egypt in 30 BC showed implacable willpower, organisational ability, and a clear grasp of overall strategy.
A New Title[]
Augustus and Livia in 9 AD.
In effect, this victory made Octavian sole ruler of the Roman Empire, although republican forms were kept up. In 27 BC, the Senate granted him the honorific "Augustus", meaning "the illustrious" or "venerable", marking the symbolic end of the Roman Republic. He simultaneously retained the title Princeps Senatus ("first man of the Senate"), reinforcing the illusion of republican continuity. Although his authority was rooted in military victory and rested on the support of the army.
He reduced the number of legions to a manageable standing army, instituted regular pay funded by the aerarium militare(military treasury), and stationed troops in frontier provinces. Veterans were granted land or pensions, reducing unrest in Rome. Augustus' four decades of absolute rule brought expansion of the Roman empire and much fighting at the periphery, but he no longer campaigned in person. However, this did not stop him from taking credit for his legions' victories.
Augustus also implemented sweeping social reforms, including laws promoting marriage and childbearing among the elite, while tightening control over provincial governors to reduce corruption. His reforms formed the administrative backbone of the empire for centuries.
Philosophy & Propaganda[]
Augustus masterfully used art, architecture, and literature to legitimise his rule. Poets such as Virgil (author of the Aeneid) and Horace glorified his reign. The Res Gestae Divi Augusti, an autobiographical inscription, was widely published across the empire to record his achievements. Temples and monuments, like the Ara Pacis, celebrated his role as a bringer of peace and divine order.
Death & Legacy[]
Despite grooming several heirs (including Marcellus, Gaius Caesar, and Lucius Caesar), all died prematurely. Eventually, his stepson Tiberius was adopted and designated successor. Augustus died in AD 14 in Nola. According to Suetonius, his final words were: "Have I played the part well? Then applaud as I exit." He was deified by the Senate and worshiped as Divus Augustus.
Gallery[]
| Roman Emperor | ||
|---|---|---|
| Preceded by: Julius Caesar (as Dictator perpetuo) |
27 BC – 14 AD | Succeeded by: Tiberius |