The Argentine Civil Wars was a series of civil conflicts fought between the centralist Unitarios and the regionalist Federales, mostly fought from 1814 until the adoption of the Constitution of 1853 and put to an end by the federalization of Buenos Aires in 1880.
The Unitarios were based predominantly in urban areas, especially Buenos Aires, which served as the political and economic center of the country. The Unitarios were also supported by the upper classes, merchants, and intellectuals who favored centralized government and liberal policies. They were often aligned with European influences and sought to modernize Argentina. Meanwhile, the Federales were based in rural provinces, particularly in the interior regions like Santa Fe, Córdoba, and Mendoza. They had a stronghold in the north and northwest. They were supported by the lower and middle classes, gauchos (cowboys), and provincial leaders. They advocated for federalism and local autonomy, emphasizing agrarian interests and traditional values.
In June 1814, Jose Gervasio Artigas founded the Federal League with Banda Oriental Province, Entre Rios Province, Corrientes Province, Misiones Province, and Cordoba Province amid the Argentine War of Independence, rupturing the United Provinces of the Rio de la Plata that had been created by the 1810 May Revolution. Though the Portuguese invaded the Banda Oriental from Brazil in 1816, Artigas opted to abandon his homeland and instead focus his efforts on overthrowing the centralist government in Buenos Aires after it adopted a centralizing constitution in 1819. The Federalist victory at the Battle of Cepeda in 1820 effectively dissolved the government and left the caudillos as the highest regional authorities for the remainder of the decade.
However, the Federal League was dissolved due to disagreements over whether to help liberate the Banda Oriental, and Buenos Aires formed an alliance with Santa Fe to fight against the Federales. The Argentines passed a centralist constitution in 1826 to deal with the outbreak of war with Brazil in 1825, and the ensuing Cisplatine War saw Argentina secure the independence of Uruguay. The Argentine military was outraged that the Banda Oriental was not annexed to Argentina, resulting in a failed Unitarian coup in December 1828 that was led by Juan Lavalle. Though the rebels executed Buenos Aires governor Manuel Dorrego, the Federalist rancher Juan Manuel de Rosas rose in revolt and defeated the coup, becoming the new Governor of Buenos Aires. Rosas built alliances with influential Federalist leaders and local caudillos, consolidating power through strategic partnerships. He leveraged the existing social and economic structures, aligning with the interests of landowners and merchants who favored Federalist policies. Rosas maintained a strong military presence, using the forces of the Federalist party to suppress opposition and intimidate Unitario supporters. His regime was marked by the use of violence and repression against Unitarios, establishing a climate of fear that discouraged dissent. Rosas promoted Federalist ideals through education and public discourse, portraying the Unitarios as elitist and disconnected from the common people. He also emphasized themes of regional identity and autonomy to cultivate popular support. By implementing policies that favored local agriculture and commerce, Rosas garnered the support of rural landowners and the urban bourgeoisie. His administration focused on protecting local industries and ensuring that provincial interests were prioritized over foreign influences.
At the same time as Rosas' ascent to power, Lavalle's ally Jose Maria Paz began to subjugate the country's interior provinces and remove caudillo influence from the cities through purges. As Rosas's regime became increasingly authoritarian, discontent grew among those who felt marginalized or oppressed by his rule. The countryside, particularly areas less dominated by Rosas’s military, became a base for Unitario resistance, leading to pockets of support. Some rural factions believed that Unitario governance could lead to better economic opportunities, especially in trade and land ownership. Disparities in treatment between urban and rural areas under Rosas's regime fostered resentment, pushing some rural communities towards the Unitarios.
In 1830, the Unitarians formed the Liga del Interior to challenge the power of the littoral caudillos, and the provinces of Buenos Aires, Santa Fe, Corrientes and Entre Ríos established the Federal Pact on 4 January 1831 as a counterweight. The Unitarians were defeated at the Battle of La Ciudadela in November 1831, and Lavalle continued to resist the Federales until his assassination in 1841. Though the Federales did not create a centralized government, Buenos Aires dominated the country's foreign policy, and Rosas intervened in the Uruguayan Civil War to support the conservative Blancos, in the War of the Confederation against the Peru-Bolivian Confederation, and in the Platine War against the Uruguayan Colorados, dissident Federalists, Brazil, and Paraguay. Rosas was deposed and exiled at the Battle of Caseros in 1852, with Entre Rios governor Justo Jose de Urquiza playing a leading role in his removal. Urquiza became President, but the regional conflicts continued into the 1850s, culminating with the Battle of Cepeda in 1859, where Urquiza's Federalist army defeated Bartolome Mitre's Unitarian Buenos Aires army. The conflict also saw the declaration of the State of Buenos Aires following the Unitarian Revolution of 11 September 1852, and this breakaway state rejected the 1853 Constitution of Argentina and promulgated its own the following year. After Cepeda, Urquiza negotiated the defeated Buenos Aires Unitarians and attempted to secure peace with the Pact of San Jose. Mitre's abandonment of the treaty led to the 1861 Battle of Pavon, where the Unitarians defeated Urquiza's national forces. The Unitarians conquered half of the interior provinces and replaced their Federalists with Unitarians, and Mitre was elected President in 1862.
Mitre implemented a limited suffrage system as President, preventing the election of secessionists to high office. Vestigial Federalist opposition continued, and La Rioja Federalist leader Chacho Penaloza was killed in 1863, while Ricardo Lopez Jordan's rebellion from 1870 to 1876 (which resulted in Urquiza's death) marked the last Federalist revolt. In 1880, the election of General Julio Argentino Roca as President led to a final armed insurrection by Buenos Aires Governor Carlos Tejedor, who opposed Buenos Aires' federalization and the resulting loss of privileges. This last uprising was quelled, and the pro-modernization Generation of '80 came to rule a country free from factional warfare.
The tension between a strong central government and provincial autonomy continues to influence political debates. Federalism is often invoked in discussions about regional rights and resource distribution. The Unitarios’ liberal ideals contrast with the populist approaches associated with various leaders after Rosas, including Perón. This divide shapes party politics, with liberal parties often advocating for market-oriented reforms and populist parties focusing on social justice and workers' rights. The historical conflict has contributed to regional identities and cultural narratives, influencing how different provinces view national policies.