The Age of Liberalism was a period of political upheaval that lasted from approximately the end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815 until the climax of the Interwar Years in 1936, occurring in Europe and, to a lesser degree, the Americas. The era began after the defeat of Napoleon I and his First French Empire, the replacement of feudalism with the Napoleonic Code, and the destruction of the Holy Roman Empire, and the reactionary monarchies of Europe began to experience liberal agitation and clamor for reform. The age saw the revitalization of coffeehouses and universities, classical liberalism, political reform, freedom of speech, and the rights of the people, and the European nations began to focus on conquering the rich continents of Africa and Asia while they began to experience a rise in political consciousness at home. The result of the era would be the 1848 Spring of Nations uprisings, the adoption of constitutions by several absolute monarchs, and the establishment of democracies across the world.
Rise of Political Parties[]
The Age of Liberalism would see the emergence and rise of several distinct political ideologies, divided between those who supported reform and those who opposed it. Liberalism and conservatism were the two principal ideologies during much of the period, but the era would see the rise of extreme left-wing ideologies such as anarcho-liberalism, communism, and socialism and the rise of extreme right-wing ideologies such as reactionary politics and fascism. These ideologies would play a major role in the politics of the the 20th century and the 21st century, having a major effect on the politics of the following centuries.
Political ideologies[]
Conservatism - Conservatives were the old guard of European politics, advocating the maintenance of the status quo, the defense of tradition, and valuing order over liberty or equality. Conservatism was the main governing ideology of many European countries during the era, as the elites tended to support the maintenance of their position in society as opposed to allowing for liberals to change society for the better. Conservatives were also in favor of military conquest, monoculturalism, and moderate business regulation. Conservatism was popular among the working classes during the first phase of the era, although the rise of populist liberalism, socialism, and communism would lead to the upper classes gravitating towards conservatism as the people moved towards leftism.
Reactionary politics - Reactionaries were extreme conservatives who sought a return to "the way things were" before, and they opposed all reforms in favor of rolling back on all progress. Reactionaries could be anything from hyper-conservatives and nationalists to outright monarchists, and they tended to support an absolute monarchy. They were the fiercest opponents of the age of liberalism, and they would, at times, resort to violence to suppress all liberal gains. Aristocrats and military officers formed the core of Europe's reactionary forces. Reactionary politics would die out as progressivism continued to win, and many reactionary fringe parties sided with conservative parties during elections.
Liberalism - Liberals valued liberty, capitalism, and a responsible government, supporting the expansion of liberty. The liberals were forward-thinkers who sought to change society for the better, and they had the goal of displacing the elite and giving power to the people. Common liberal ideologies were abolitionism, women's suffrage, deregulating the economy, ending national banks, supporting natural rights for immigrants and minorities, favoring religious diversity, and moderately supporting a strong military. At first, most liberals were capitalists or clerks, with some clergymen and artisans also gravitating towards liberalism. However, the advent of populist liberalism led to the elite moving towards conservatism as the lower classes moved towards leftism.
Anarcho-liberalism (1836-1936) - Anarcho-liberals adhered to radicalism, an extreme variant of liberalism that advocated taking the idea of human liberty to its logical extreme. Anarcho-liberals supported liberal positions more consistently than many liberals, and they believed in the end of the state as an entity and guaranteeing the free and equal existence of all men. Anarcho-liberals supported a completely deregulated economy, favored the lack of religion in the government or society (tending to support either atheism or secularism), advocated the defense of the natural rights of immigrants and minorities, and supported the maintenance of a strong military. Anarcho-liberals tended to stay out of establishment politics, as they did not want to legitimize the state that they sought to abolish; nevertheless, they often formed coalitions with liberal parties during elections. Anarcho-liberalism is closer to modern libertarianism than it is to unrefined anarchism, a far-left ideology that opposes capitalism entirely.
- Socialism (1848-1936) - Socialists believed that equality is the paramount value that a society must pursue, seeking to use the machinery of the state to take from the "haves" and give to the "have-nots"; many of them were former liberals. Socialism originated as a school of utilitarianism, and it would be significantly influenced by the works of philosophers Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, who wrote The Communist Manifesto (1848) to describe the establishment of a socialist society. Socialism advocated the popular overthrow of the elite, supporting left-wing populism; the party attracted craftsmen and laborers. Socialist views on trade varied, with their views varying between protectionism and free trade. Most agreed on a planned economy, the removal of the state from religious life, full citizenship on the basis of humanism, and a decrease in military spending (or even pacifism). Socialists always supported political and social reforms.
- Communism (1848-1936) - Communists were radical socialists, believing in revolution instead of evolution. Under communism, all structures created under capitalism (including representative democracies) were inherently flawed, and communists sought to overthrow the flawed social order and defend it against counter-revolutionaries, whether they were liberals, conservatives, reactionaries, or moderate socialists. Communism believed in class conflict, meaning that the objective of communism was to destroy the upper class and create a classless society ruled by the proletariat (working classes). Communists, unlike the liberal-inspired socialists, saw uneven economic development as evil, and they sought to protect their economy from foreigners. A centrally-planned economy was another hallmarks of communism, as was self-actualization through atheism (Marx believed that religion distracted people from the plight of the masses), the unity of people of all ethnicities and races, and support for a world revolution. Communists tended to favor liberal economic reforms to level all of the people for the common good, while they opposed certain freedoms in favor of a "dictatorship of the proletariat".
- Fascism (1901-1936) - Fascism was the final political ideology to emerge during the Age of Liberalism, coming to prominence during the first quarter of the 20th century. Fascists were influenced by national syndicalism, nationalism, militarism, and statism, and some fascist leaders were originally socialists due to their beliefs in a populist society (Benito Mussolini and Nicola Bombacci). They gained popularity among lower-middle-class people and rural people, supporting the revitalization of their nation through the construction of a national community and the achievement of a "national rebirth". Fascism became popular in the defeated or under-compensated countries of World War I, as they sought to make their countries great through uniting their people under a single culture and a single, fascist party. Fascists believed in the power of a single strongman, typically a military leader or a member of the upper classes, and they believed in discrimination against immigrants and minorities, strict government control over daily life, a state-run economy, the health of the nation, national unity, the recovery of lost territory, and expansionism. Fascist views on welfare varied, as some fascists favored rolling back communist reforms, while others sought to reform society for the better of their preferred nationality.
