The 2023 Guayana Esequiba crisis was a diplomatic crisis between Guyana and Venezuela that broke out in November 2023 in the disputed region of Guayana Esequiba in western Guyana.
The Dutch had colonized Essequibo starting in 1581, but the British permanently occupied the region in 1796 amid the French Revolutionary Wars and transformed the region into a hub of sugarcane planting. In 1831, Demerara-Essequibo was united with Berbice to create British Guiana, although the newly-independent state of Venezuela claimed Guayana Esequiba as its own. In 1899, the Great Powers - who had agreed to arbitrate the territorial dispute - issued a declaration awarding the disputed territory to Britain; in 1962, Venezuela contended before the United Nations that the 1899 Paris Award was null and void. In 1966, Venezuela and the United Kingdom signed the Geneva Agreement to outline steps for resolving the dispute over British Guiana.
The crisis heated up again in 2023 after the discovery of oil and gas fields off the coast of the sparsely-populated region. On 19 September 2023, Guyana authorized six foreign oil companies to drill in waters claimed by Venezuela. In response, President Nicolas Maduro decided to call a 3 December 2023 referendum in which Venezuelans could vote on extending Venezuelan citizenship to the 125,000 inhabitants of Guayana Esequiba and to annex the region; this referendum occurred as Venezuela prepared for semi-democratic elections, and some opposition leaders such as Manuel Rosales and Henrique Capriles supported the referendum, while leading opposition leader Maria Corina Machado instead supported filing a claim at the International Court of Justice. At the end of November 2023, President Irfaan Ali raised the Guyanese flag over Pakarampa mountain near the Venezuelan border, leading to Venezuelan Defense Minister Vladimir Padrino Lopez warning of the Venezuelan Armed Forces' permanent vigilance and saying that the conflict "for now" was not a war. The conflict escalated on 23 November 2023 as senior military officers from the Guyana Defense Force and the Brazilian Armed Forces met for a military exchange; this was followed by the mobilization of the Brazilian Army towards the border of both countries, as Brazilian intelligence foresaw an imminent military move by the Venezuelan Army against Guyana. From 27 to 29 November, the Brazilian army deployed 16 armored vehicles to Boa Vista, while also mobilizing Leopard tanks and infantry troops from Sao Paulo.
On 3 December2023, despite pre-referendum polls overestimating turnout at 20%, Venezuela's National Electoral Council claimed that more than 10.5 million votes were cast, with 95% being in favor of Venezuelan sovereignty over Guayana Esequiba. At the same time, Guyanese vice-president Bharrat Jagdeo said that he would prepare for the worst, while strengthening defense cooperation. On 5 December, Brazil mobilized 20 Iveco tactical vehicles to join the newly activated 18th Mechanized Cavalry Regiment, which was soon bolstered by 600 troops and 28 more armored vehicles. On 5 December, Maduro announced that he would permit the exploitation of gas, oil, and mineral deposits within Guayana Esequiba, while, on 6 December, Lula announced his intention to make a presidential visit to Guyana the following year. On 5 December, a GDF helicopter piloted by Lieutenant-Colonel Michael Charles went missing while conducting a "border operation" near the Venezuelan border, and it was found to have crashed a day later.
On 7 December, the United States Southern Command announced that its forces would participate in joint operations beside the GDF to improve collaboration with security measures, offending Venezuelan defense minister Vladimir Padrino Lopez. The United States was not the only power involved in the conflict, however; Russia sold military hardware to Maduro while operating two military bases within Venezuelan territory, and a detachment of the Wagner Group private military company trained Venezuelan elite troops and provided personal security for Maduro. On 24 December 2023, the United Kingdom deployed the patrol vessel HMS Trent off the Guyanese coast.
On 4 April 2024, Venezuela signed into law the referendum approving the annexation of Guyana; on that same day, Maduro claimed that secret bases of the US Southern Command and the CIA had been installed in the Guayana Esequiba region to prepare attacks on the population of southern and eastern Venezuela.