Battle of Mutina

The Battle of Mutina occurred on 21 April 43 BC during a brief civil war between the forces loyal to the Roman Senate and the forces loyal to Mark Antony. The war began as the result of a dispute over Mark Antony's request to switch his governorship of Macedonia for Cisalpine Gaul, where he would have more influence over Rome; when the Senate refused (Cisalpine Gaul was already governed by Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus), Antony invaded Italy, leading to an inconclusive battle which resulted in a peace treaty.

Background
On 15 March 44 BC, the Roman dictator Julius Caesar was assassinated by a conspiracy of Roman senators led by Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius Longinus. The conspirators, known as the Liberatores, saw their actions as a justified tyrannicide, fearing that Caesar would have eventually declared himself King. On 17 March 44 BC, Caesar's right-hand man Mark Antony met with the Liberatores at the Roman Senate to agree to a compromise: Caesar would neither be declared a tyrant nor his killers declared murderers, Caesar's will would stand, everyone would keep their posts, and Brutus and Antony would hold a public funeral for Caesar and speak together. Brutus and Cassius agreed, as declaring Caesar a tyrant would nullify the vast amount of favors that he showered upon the Senate, including themselves. The hypocritical Brutus and Cassius agreed to the compromise, and the Roman Senate issued an amnesty for Caesar's killers.

A few days later, Antony called for Caesar's will to be read, as he believed that he - Caesar's trusted lieutenant for years - would be the childless Caesar's obvious choice for his heir. However, Caesar's great-nephew Octavian had become close to Caesar during his campaigns in Hispania during the civil war with Pompey, and Caesar secretly adopted Octavian as his son and heir. In the will, he left all of his property and money to Octavian, who was to be regarded as Caesar's lawful son and sole heir. Octavian, who came from a plebeian family with ties to Caesar, was in Illyricum at the time of the assassination of Julius Caesar, but he rushed to Rome after discovering his inheritance. Caesar's posthumous adoption of Octavian challenged Antony's leading role in the Caesarian movement, although Antony still enjoyed the love of the people.

On 20 March 44 BC, Antony spoke at Caesar's funeral, where he manipulated the Roman public's emotions to turn popular sentiment against the Liberatores. Antony's speech incited riots against the Liberatores, who were forced to barricade themselves indoors to prevent themselves from being murdered. As Octavian neared Rome, the Liberatores fled from the capital, fearing civil war. Antony was able to consolidate his power as the head of the Caesarian movement, and the conflict between Octavian and Antony began after Antony - who was in sole possession of Octavian's inheritance - continued to delay the transfer of the vast sums of money to Octavian. Antony pointed out that Caesar's adoption was unofficial, and he attempted to delay transferring the inheritance for as long as possible. However, Antony also neglected to pay Caesar's veterans their share of the money. Octavian borrowed an immense amount of money to fulfill these bequests, even selling Caesar's private lands and estates, and this move won the hearts and minds of Caesar's old legions for Octavian, who was now seen as his true heir due to his fulfilling of Caesar's promises.

With the battle lines being drawn, the influential politician Cicero launched a smear campaign against Antony in the Senate, giving a series of speeches called the "Philippics" which demonized Antony as a threat to Rome. Antony's popularity was waning and his consulship was nearing its end, so he made plans to protect his future. Unhappy with his posting as Governor of Macedonia, he pushed the Senate to name him as Governor of Cisalpine Gaul in northern Italia, from which he could easily swoop down to Rome if he was ever threatened. However, Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus, one of Caesar's assassins, was already governor in Cisalpine Gaul, and the Senate refused to depose him. Antony had little choice but to take his army and invade Italia, marching his veteran Caesarian legions from Macedonia and into Italy.

Battle
On 28 November 44 BC, Antony left Rome with four veteran legions that had crossed from Macedonia to Brundisium, but one of his legions defected to Octavian, refusing to fight for him. Antony took his three remaining legions and laid siege to Brutus at Mutina (now Modena). On 1 January 43 BC, the Senate declared Antony to be an enemy of the state and turned to Octavian for military support. Cicero believed that he could manipulate Octavian and discard him once he had served his purpose, and Octavian oddly fought side-by-side with one of Caesar's assassins.

On 14 April 43 BC, the Roman consul Gaius Vibius Pansa Caetronianus marched north from Rome to reinforce Octavian and his fellow consul Aulus Hirtius during Antony's siege, but Antony attacked Caetronianus' army at Forum Galliorum. Vibius Pansa was mortally wounded, and Antony called off the pursuit of his broken army. However, Hirtius' fresh troops crashed into Antony's exhausted army, devastating Antony's forces. Antony and his cavalry pulled back to his camp, having lost the initiative and the battle.

Six days later, on 21 April 43 BC, Hirtius and Octavian attacked Antony's army with the goal of opening a supply route to the city. Antony sent two legions to hold back the Republican advance, and the Antonian forces struggled due to the slow arrival of their reinforcements. During the battle, Hirtius himself led an attack on Antony's camp, but he was killed while vainly attempting to attack Antony's command tent. Octavian managed to recover Hirtius' remains, but could not keep possession of Antony's camps. Octavian assumed command of Hirtius' legions and refused to transfer command of the legions to Brutus, saying that they would never fight for one of Caesar's assassins. Octavian came to be in control of eight legions loyal to him and not to the Republic, and Brutus' legions at Mutina began to desert to Octavian. Brutus soon abandoned his remaining legions and fled Italy, only to be captured and executed by a Gallic chieftain loyal to Antony before he could reach Brutus and Cassius in Macedonia.

Aftermath
Antony was forced to retreat into Gaul with the remnants of his army, and he met up with his old comrade Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, the governor of Transalpine Gaul. Lepidus had been sent with an army to finish off Antony, but Lepidus engaged in negotiations instead. In July 43 BC, Octavian returned to Rome at the head of an army, and he forced the Senate to accept him as the new Consul. He proceeded to declare Brutus and Cassius as enemies of the Republic, proving to Cicero that he had underestimated Octavian. Cicero then sent a letter to Brutus warning him of Octavian and Antony's infighting, asking them to liberate Rome from tyrants once more. Brutus and Cassius brought 17 legions to liberate Rome, so Octavian formed the unlikely Second Triumvirate with Antony and Lepidus, allying against the Liberatores.