Japanese invasions of Korea

The Japanese invasions of Korea was a series of incursions into Korea by the Toyotomi Shogunate. Korea was to be the first overseas conquest for Hideyoshi Hashiba's Japan - and a bridgehead for an invasion of China to the north. But, brave, resourceful, and resilient, the Koreans repulsed the invaders - not once, but twice - thus destroying Hideyoshi's imperial ambitions.

Background
Korea was a strong and stable kingdom in the 16th century. It was diplomatically close to neighboring Ming China, and shared many of its values.

A United Korea
King Wang Kon of Koguryo had united Korea's Three Kingdoms (Kogurgo, Pakeche, and Silla) in the 10th century. China's Mongol ruler, Kublai Khan, had contrived the rise of King Wongjong but the country had managed to maintain a great deal of autonomy.

Choson Rule
The Choson dynasty had seized power in a coup in 1392: it was unbiased in its centralizing zeal. Attacking the ancient privileges of the country's aristocratic families, it built up its own authority at their expense. By the middle of the 16th century, however, its stranglehold on society was slowly weakening as rival factions started to emerge.

A Tempting Target
It was at precisely this time that Japan was being united under Hideyoshi Hashiba. Having turned his long-divided country into a single nation-state, he dreamed of building an empire overseas. Just a short hop from Kyushu - Japan's southernmost island - Korea was not just a prize in itself but a stepping-stone to a possible conquest of Ming China.

Wars
Hideyoshi Hashiba was a visionary. While his contemporaries sparred and scrpaped over provinces, he looked to the unification of Japan. His first acts as regent, in 1586, were to start shipbuilding and to build a base on the northern coast of Kyushu from which to launch an invasion force.

Like many leaders since, Hideyoshi saw war abroad as a way of securing peace at home: his title to power was disputed, and Japan was full of samurai. Without an external enemy, they might direct their aggression at each other or turn on him. So he began negotiations with Korea's Choson regime about an alliance against China. It was not long, however, before he realized that Korea itself was virtually defenseless.

So it seemed to a ruler with half a million men under arms - samurai with years of experience in the arts of war. On 24 May 1592, within one day of landing on the Korean coast, his men captured the strategic fortress-city of Busan and killed some 30,000 of its inhabitants in cold blood.

Ill-armed and inadequately equipped, the Koreans' regular troops and their "Righteous Army" of volunteers had no answer to the skill and prowess of Hideyoshi's soldiers. Though they had some heavy cannon, they relied mainly on bows and arrows, which could not compete with the Japanese arquebuses for range or penetrating power. Korea's capital, Hanseong (present-day Seoul), was taken in mid-June and, by the end of August, the country was all but conquered.

It was a different story at sea, however. Here, the Japanese navy suffered heavy blows in a series of engagements with Yi Sun-sin's Korean fleet, complete with turtle ships, which culminated in a savage encounter at Hansando on 13 August. What was left of the Japanese fleet had to be confined to port. All of a sudden, their supply line seemed very long and desperately exposed. Inevitabely, they were plagued by difficulties ashore: the morale of Korea's defenders soared while that of their invaders slumped, and Korea's troops maintained a dogged guerrilla struggle. In Octrober they successfully defended the fortress of Jinju (Chinju) and, in February 1593, with just 2,000 soldiers to Hideyoshi's 30,000, the Korean army also held Haengju fortress.

A second attempt
Hideyoshi gave up and agreed to a truce, although he did not renounce his imperial ambitions in Korea. In January 1597, he launched another invasion, sending hundreds of ships and over 100,000 troops. This time, however, they lacked the advantage of surprise; their enemy had been making preparations. Boosting both their land forces and their navy, the Koreans had also armed themselves with backing from Ming China, which sent 75,000 men as well as ships. The Japanese took the city of Namwon and the strategic fortress of Hwangseoksan, but these victories did not prove to be substantial breakthroughs.

At sea Yi Sun-sin had been forced to relinquish his command after a dispute with his superiors, and his replacement managed to lose almost his entire fleet in a singele battle. Back in charge, Yi ha just 12 ships left, but his supremacy was unbeated: his fleet sank 133 Japanese vessels at the Battle of Myeongnyang. Meanwhile, on land, Japan's army was now in retreat. By the autumn of 1598, Hideyoshi's health was fading. On his deathbed, he ordered a withdrawal.

Aftermath
Hideyoshi's dream of a Japanese empire had turned out to be a fantasy. His successors would henceforth concentrate on maintaining stability at home.

A New Era for Japan
Conspicuous by his absence in Korea was Ieyasu Tokugawa, Hideyoshi's sometime ally and long-term rival. That he came through this episode untouched by failure did no harm to his prestiege, however: by 1603 he had seized the shogunate. Now, far from pursuing Hideyoshi's imperial project, the Tokugawa shoguns pulled down the shutters on Japan, excluding foreign merchants and missionaries.

Korea's New-Found Confidence
Korea had been through terrible traumas, but it had gained much in military capability and confidence. Both of these factors would help Korea resist the Chinese Manchu invasions of the 17th century.