Battle of Tora Bora

The Battle of Tora Bora occurred from 6 to 17 December 2001 at the end of the United States-led invasion of Afghanistan. The United States, its Coalition allies, and the Northern Alliance attempted to cut off the escape route of several high-value Taliban and al-Qaeda leaders and fighters as they attempted to flee through the Khyber Pass to sanctuary in Pakistan, but, despite heavy bombing of the Tora Bora tunnel complexes, the jihadist leadership succeeded in escaping. The battle ended Taliban rule in Afghanistan, but it led to the start of a Taliban insurgency in the country, causing the continuation of the conflict as the "Afghanistan War".

Background
At the end of 2001, al-Qaeda fighters were still holding out in the mountainous Afghan border region with Pakistan, and the US and its allies believed that the al-Qaeda leader Osama bin Laden himself was hiding in the mountains at Tora Bora. The jihadists withdrew into a network of caves which had been established with CIA assistance during the Soviet-Afghan War of the 1980s, and the Tora Bora complex was a lower-rise dwelling with hotel-like corridors capable of sheltering more than 1,000 people; it contained large caches of ammunition (including Stinger missiles) left over from the war against the Soviets. In December 2001, the US began using large "daisy cutter" bombs to pound the Tora Bora complex and the surrounding mountains, and they planned an operation to cut off the insurgents' escape routes to Pakistan and to kill or capture the high-value targets. The Coalition forces made the mistake of refusing to commit large numbers of soldiers to the operation, instead relying on small groups of special forces operatives to coordinate operations with local Afghan allies, who were familiar with the terrain.

Operation
On 5 December 2001, Northern Alliance fighters seized control of the low ground beneath the mountain caves, and the Coalition forces sent in scores of special forces operatives to coordinate an assault on the caves in conjunction with the local anti-Taliban militias. The Northern Alliance fighters advanced through familiar terrain as US, British, and German soldiers called in close air support against the insurgents, assisting the Northern Alliance advance. However, the Northern Alliance forces were divided due to petty disputes between their warlord commanders, leading to confusion during the advance. One of the warlords agreed to a truce with Bin Laden, who promised that he would use the time to agree to surrender terms. However, Bin Laden and other major insurgent leaders were able to escape through the snowy mountains to Pakistan's Federally Administered Tribal Areas via Parachinar, and Bin Laden partly fulfilled his promise to the Northern Alliance, giving his 055 Brigade rearguard his blessing to surrender during their holding action. On 11 December 2001, the Coalition forces found small outposts and a few minor training camps during their advance, and, by 17 December, the last cave complex had been taken and their defenders overrun. Despite hearing Bin Laden's voice in intercepted radio messages several times, they failed to kill or capture him, or even see a sign of his presence beforehand.

Aftermath
Following Tora Bora, the Coalition and their Afghan allies consolidated their positions within the country, with the Taliban and al-Qaeda forces going into hiding and preparing to launch an insurgency against the occupiers. A loya jirga council was assembled in Kabul under Hamid Karzai, who came to lead a new pro-US Afghan regime. During January and February 2002, al-Qaeda forces began regrouping in the Shahikot Valley of Paktia Province, leading to Operation Anaconda - the next major military engagement of the war - in March 2002.